Samuel Johnson’s Preface to Shakespeare (1765)

 

Introduction:

Samuel Johnson’s Preface to Shakespeare, published in 1765 as the introduction to his milestone edition of Shakespeare’s plays, is a foundation of English literary criticism. Written during the Neo-Classical era (late 17th-18th centuries), which emphasized order, reason, imitation of classical models, and adherence to rules, Johnson’s work stands out for its notable balance. It precisely applies Neo-Classical principles while simultaneously defending Shakespeare’s genius against rigid dogma. Johnson determines Shakespeare not just as an editor, but as a critic seeking to establish the Bard’s enduring value based on "nature" (universal human experience) and "test of time." This newsletter breaks down Johnson’s arguments, key concepts, and enduring significance, explaining essential literary terminology along the way.

I. Samuel Johnson: The Man Behind the Preface

• Key Biographical Context:

1. Physical & Financial Struggles: In the first phases of his life, the man had been infected with scrofula and small pox, which caused partial deafness, partial blindness and permanent scarring. Forced to leave the system of the Oxford University due to financial constraints, the person kept independent and refused external financial support. The direct result of this withdrawal caused severe periods of depression.
2. Literary Grind & Rise: Worked as a translator in London. Attained fame with London (1738, poem) and The Life of Mr. Richard Savage (1744), a pioneering "critical biography" (a biography that analyzes the subject's character and work critically, not just chronologically).
3. Monumental Works: Compiled the seminal A Dictionary of the English Language (1755) almost single-handedly (a Herculean task compared to European collaborative efforts). Published acclaimed works like The Vanity of Human Wishes (1749), Rasselas (1759), and essays for The Rambler.
4. The Shakespeare Project: Announced in 1756, delayed importantly (partly due to criticism, notably from Charles Churchill), finally published in 1765 (8 volumes). The Preface (72 pages) is its critical heart.

II. Structure & Core Premise of the Preface

1. Two Main Sections:
1. Critical Analysis: Johnson’s analysis of Shakespeare’s merits and defects as a dramatist.
2. Editorial Methodology: Explanation of his approach to editing Shakespeare’s often corrupt texts.
2. Foundational Argument: The Test of Time

1.      Prescriptive Veneration: Johnson partly agrees with 18th-century critics that antiquity deserves respect, especially in the arts. The ultimate proof of artistic excellence is "length of duration and continuance of esteem." Works that survive centuries have inherent value.

2.      Shakespeare as "Ancient": Johnson argues Shakespeare (d. 1616) had, by 1765, "long outlived his century" – the standard test period. He thus deservedly assumes "the dignity of an ancient" and claims "prescriptive veneration" (respect earned by long-established fame). This frames Shakespeare as a classic, worthy of serious critical attention. (Johnson elevates Shakespeare to the status of Homer or Virgil).

III. Shakespeare’s "Excellencies" (Merits)

A.    Shakespeare: "The Poet of Nature"

1. Just Representations of General Nature: This is Johnson’s central praise. Shakespeare holds up "a faithful mirror of manners and of life." His greatness lies in portraying universal human nature – fundamental passions, motives, and experiences common to all people, across time and place.
• "Nothing can please many, and please long, but just representations of general nature." 
2. Characters as Universals: Romans, Danes, kings, or clowns – Shakespeare’s characters embody general human types and emotions. They act and speak as "the reader thinks he should himself have spoken or acted on the same occasion." They feel real and relatable.
3. Individualization within Universality: While depicting universal passions, Shakespeare also makes his characters distinct individuals. His range encompasses diverse human passions, not just love.
4. Defense Against "Petty Cavils": Johnson dismisses criticism that Shakespeare portrayed foreign nobility as buffoons. He prioritized essential human character over superficial "accidental distinctions" (specific, non-essential details like nationality or exact historical accuracy): "a poet overlooks the casual distinctions of country and condition, as a painter, satisfied with a figure, neglects the tapestry." 
5. Enduring Monument: Johnson’s famous tribute: "The stream of time, which is continually washing the dissoluble fabrics of other poets; passes by the adamant of Shakespeare."  (Adamant = diamond, symbolizing indestructibility).

B.     Mingled Drama (Tragicomedy)

1. Violation of Classical Rules: Ancient Greek/Roman drama strictly separated tragedy (serious, ending in catastrophe for the protagonist, evoking pity/fear) and comedy (lighter, ending happily, evoking laughter). Neo-Classical rules demanded this separation (decorum).
2. Johnson’s Defense: Johnson argues Shakespeare’s mixing of tragic and comic elements is a strength, reflecting the true "real state of sublunary nature, which partakes of good and evil, joy and sorrow."
3. Realism Over Rules: Johnson asserts realism (truth to life) supersedes arbitrary rules: "there is always an appeal open from criticism to nature." Mingled drama can instruct and delight as effectively as pure forms, perhaps more so, by mirroring life's complexity.
4. Pleasure through Variety: Mixing tones doesn't weaken emotions; variety actually enhances pleasure and engagement. The primary goal of poetry/drama is to "instruct by pleasing."

C.     Genius in Comedy

1. "Comedy to be Instinct": Johnson, agreeing with critic Thomas Rymer, saw Shakespeare’s natural talent shining brightest in comedy. Comic scenes seemed effortlessly written ("instinct"), while tragedy required more conscious "skill."
2. Enduring Appeal: Shakespeare sourced his comic dialogue from "the common intercourse of life," ensuring its humor and relevance remained accessible over time.

IV. Shakespeare’s "Defects" (Faults)

A.    Moral Laxity (Johnson’s Primary Criticism)

1. Neo-Classical Didacticism: Johnson, as a Neo-Classicist, strongly believed art had a didactic purpose – it must instruct morally and promote virtue. "It is always the duty of the writer to make the world better." 
2. Shakespeare’s Shortcoming: Johnson argues Shakespeare prioritizes pleasing his audience over instructing them morally. He lacks a clear moral purpose:
• He fails to ensure poetic justice: "he makes no just distribution of good or evil." Good isn't always rewarded; evil isn't always punished.
• He doesn't consistently show virtuous characters condemning vice.
• Characters move indifferently through right and wrong, and their final fates offer no clear moral lesson: "leaves their examples to operate by chance." 
3. Example: Cordelia in King Lear: Johnson strongly condemns Cordelia’s death as a moral failure: "Shakespeare has suffered the virtue of Cordelia to perish in a just cause, contrary to the natural ideas of justice, to the hope of the reader..." He argues audiences naturally desire justice and rewarding virtue enhances a play's moral impact and satisfaction, even if life isn't always fair.

B.     Plot Construction

1. Loose Plots: Johnson finds Shakespeare’s plots often "loosely formed" and not diligently pursued. Opportunities for instruction or delight within the plot are sometimes missed.
2. Weak Endings (Catastrophe): Johnson criticizes the endings (catastrophe - the final resolution or climax, especially in tragedy) of many plays as poorly constructed: "his catastrophe is improbably produced or imperfectly represented." Endings feel rushed, improbable, or unsatisfying.

C.    Violations of Verisimilitude (Appearance of Truth)

1.      Anachronism & Geographical Errors: Johnson faults Shakespeare for lacking verisimilitude (the appearance of being true or real) concerning time and place. He mixes customs, institutions, and ideas from different eras and locations without concern for historical accuracy: "he gives to one age or nation, without scruple, the customs, institutions and opinions of another." (p. 36)

2.      Examples: Hector quoting Aristotle (ancient Greek philosopher) centuries before Aristotle lived in Troilus and Cressida; blending Greek myth (Theseus/Hippolyta) with English folklore (fairies) in A Midsummer Night's Dream.

D.    Faults in Language and Style

1.      Coarseness in Comedy: While praising Shakespeare's comic instinct, Johnson finds the language and jokes in many comic dialogues "coarse" and "gross," making gentlemen and ladies sound like clowns. He refuses to excuse this by saying it was common in Elizabethan times; a great poet should rise above it.

2.      Verbosity and Obscurity in Tragedy: Johnson attributes perceived "meanness, tediousness and obscurity" in the tragedies to "excessive labor." Tragic narration can be "verbose and prolix" (wordy and lengthy), full of "verbiage" (excess words) and unnecessary repetition.

3.      Inappropriate Diction: Words sometimes don't match the occasion. Set speeches can seem "cold and weak," designed more to show off knowledge than serve the drama, and resented by readers. Language can be overly inflated ("high sounding") for the sentiment expressed.

4.      The Quibble (Pun) as "Fatal Cleopatra": Johnson delivers a scathing attack on Shakespeare’s excessive fondness for the quibble (a pun or play on words). He sees it as a fatal weakness Shakespeare couldn't resist, even if it ruined a serious moment: "a quibble was the fatal Cleopatra for which he was willing to lose the world and was content to lose it." (p. 44) He argues puns often cause a damaging "sudden drop in emotional temperature" in tragic scenes. (This criticism stems from Johnson's high expectations; he felt Shakespeare's genius sometimes faltered).

E.     Shakespeare’s Violation of the Unities (A Landmark Defense)

1.      The Three Unities (Neo-Classical Dogma): Derived (somewhat strictly) from Aristotle's Poetics, these were considered essential rules for credible drama:

a.       Unity of Action: One main plot with few or no subplots.

b.      Unity of Time: The action should occur within a single day (ideally 12-24 hours).

c.       Unity of Place: The action should occur in a single location.

2.      Shakespeare’s "Defect": Shakespeare routinely violated the Unities of Time and Place. His plays span years and jump continents. 18th-century critics saw this as a major flaw, destroying dramatic illusion (the audience's temporary acceptance of the staged fiction as real).

3.      Johnson’s Revolutionary Defense:

a.       Histories Exempt: Argues history plays, by nature, require changes in time and place. They aren't pure tragedies or comedies, so the rules don't strictly apply.

b.      Unity of Action Maintained: Johnson asserts Shakespeare does follow the crucial Unity of Action. His plots have a clear beginning, middle, and end, moving logically towards their conclusion.

c.       Rules Not Based on Reason: Johnson argues the Unities of Time and Place lack a solid foundation. They are arbitrary, not essential for credibility.

d.      The Audience’s Imagination & "Willing Suspension of Disbelief": Johnson's core argument:

Ø  Drama is acknowledged artifice. The audience knows it's a play.

Ø  If the audience can accept the initial illusion (e.g., this stage is Alexandria in Act I), they can easily use their imagination to accept a change (e.g., this stage is now Rome in Act II). Similarly, they can imagine the passage of time between acts.

Ø  The audience is not deluded; they willingly cooperate: "The spectators are always in their senses, and know... that the stage is only a stage, and that the players are only players." They enter a state later termed by Coleridge as the "willing suspension of disbelief" (temporarily setting aside disbelief for the sake of enjoyment).

Ø  Real pleasure comes not from literal belief, but from the enactment reminding us of reality. Strict adherence to time/place unities actually limits the scope of human experience drama can portray.

• Significance: This defense was radical for its time, prioritizing imaginative engagement and realism over rigid formalism. It paved the way for Romantic and modern dramatic theory.

F.     Shakespeare and Elizabethan England (Contextualizing Genius)

1. "Just Emerging from Barbarity": Johnson portrays Elizabethan England as culturally nascent. Literature was confined to scholars and the elite; the public consumed popular romances.
2. Use of Familiar Sources: Johnson notes Shakespeare often used these popular romances as sources, making his stories accessible to less-learned audiences.
3. Lack of Models & Learning: Johnson believes Shakespeare knew little Latin/Greek and no modern languages (borrowing via English translations). Crucially, English literature/drama was in its infancy – there were no strong native models for character, dialogue, or dramatic form.
4. The Pioneer: Johnson hails Shakespeare as an original genius and pioneer:

a.       Inventive Originality: Comparable only to Homer; derived nothing significant from others.

b.      Founder of English Drama: Originated its form, characters, language, and performance style.

c.       Master of Blank Verse: First to establish the true harmony and potential of blank verse (unrhymed iambic pentameter, the dominant meter of English dramatic and epic poetry) in English.

d.      Discoverer of English Language's Qualities: Revealed its capacity for smoothness and harmony.

e.       Dual Success: First playwright whose tragedies and comedies were equally prosperous and pleasurable.

G.    Shakespeare’s Texts: The Editorial Challenge

1. The Problem: Johnson details the chaotic state of Shakespeare’s texts:

Ø  Shakespeare’s indifference to publication (writing for "immediate profit and pleasure").

Ø  Most plays published posthumously (First Folio, 1623).

Ø  Authentic versions lacking; published texts corrupted by actors (cutting/mangling speeches), printers (errors), and scribes (mistakes).

Ø  Shakespeare’s own "ungrammatical style" adding to confusion.

2. Previous Editions (1709-1747): Johnson surveyed earlier editors:

Ø  Rowe (1709): Divided plays into Acts/Scenes, modernized spelling, added character lists/exits. Made texts more readable.

Ø  Pope (1725): Made many arbitrary emendations (changes to the text to correct perceived errors or corruptions), often mutilating the text.

Ø  Theobald (1734): Pioneered better textual scholarship, using earlier Quartos and the First Folio instead of the unreliable Fourth Folio (1685).

Ø  Hammer (1744) & Warburton (1747): Of little value.

H.    Johnson’s Editorial Method

1. Goal: Produce a Variorum Edition (an edition compiling notes, commentary, and variant readings from previous editors alongside the editor's own).
2. Acknowledgement: Johnson openly acknowledged his debt to predecessors and included their prefaces.
3. Types of Notes:

a.       Illustrative: Explaining difficult words, references, or passages.

b.      Judicial: Commenting on the "faults and beauties" of the text/drama.

c.       Emendatory: Proposing corrections to corrupt passages.

4. Restraint in Emendation: Johnson prided himself on being "neither superfluously copious nor scrupulously reserved" (p. 131). He aimed for a middle ground between reckless conjecture and timidity, prioritizing the earliest printed texts ("trusting in those publishers who had a copy before their eyes") while cautiously proposing changes.
5. Humility: He admitted some passages remained obscure and left their interpretation to posterity. He advised readers to first read the play uninterrupted for pleasure, only consulting notes later for clarification.

I.       Johnson’s Achievement & Legacy

1. Enduring Critical Landmark: Even by modern standards, the Preface is a masterpiece of balanced, insightful criticism. It transcends its Neo-Classical framework.
2. Key Progressive Stances:
1. Defense of the Unities Violation: His argument for imaginative freedom was revolutionary.
2. Defense of Mingled Drama: Legitimized tragicomedy based on realism.
3. "Test of Time" & Universality: Established lasting criteria for literary greatness.
4. Focus on Character & Nature: Shifted focus towards psychological realism and universal human experience.
3. Editorial Contribution: His Variorum approach, emphasizing textual history and comparative notes, set a new standard for scholarly editing, despite limitations by modern textual-critical standards. His restraint in emendation was commendable.
4. Limitations (Neo-Classical Bindings):
1. Moral Didacticism: His insistence on clear poetic justice and moral purpose feels restrictive today.
2. Comedy over Tragedy: His preference for Shakespeare's comedies is controversial.
3. Verisimilitude: His criticism of anachronism reflects a later historical consciousness not prominent in Shakespeare's time.
5. The Verdict: Johnson’s strengths vastly outweigh his limitations. He provided the comparative and historical basis for much future criticism. His insights into Shakespeare’s universality remain foundational. His age is rightly called "The Age of Johnson" due to his immense critical and cultural influence. He concludes by reaffirming Shakespeare’s innate genius: "he was naturally learned; he needed not the spectacles of books to read nature" and possessed the "largest and most comprehensive soul." (p. 160)

Glossary of Key Literary & Technical Terms

1. Adamant: (Literally: a hard substance, like diamond; Figuratively: unyielding, enduring). Johnson uses it to symbolize Shakespeare's indestructible greatness.
2. Anachronism: An error in chronology; placing something (person, event, object, idea) in a time period where it does not belong. Johnson criticized Shakespeare for anachronisms like Hector quoting Aristotle.
3. Blank Verse: Unrhymed poetry written in iambic pentameter (a line of ten syllables with an unstressed-stressed rhythm pattern: da-DUM x5). Johnson praised Shakespeare as the master who established its harmony in English drama.
4. Catastrophe: In drama (especially tragedy), the final resolution of the plot; the downfall of the protagonist or the concluding event. Johnson criticized Shakespeare for weak or improbable catastrophes.
5. Critical Biography: A biography that not only recounts the subject's life but also critically analyzes their character, work, and significance. Johnson's "Life of Savage" was an early, influential example.
6. Decorum: In Neo-Classicism, the principle that a work of art should exhibit appropriateness and fitness, especially in style (e.g., tragic characters should speak nobly, comic characters more plainly) and genre (keeping tragedy and comedy separate). Shakespeare's mingled drama violated decorum.
7. Didactic: Intended to teach, particularly moral lessons. Neo-Classical critics like Johnson believed literature should be didactic.
8. Dramatic Illusion: The temporary acceptance by the audience that the events happening on stage are real. Also related to Suspension of Disbelief. Critics argued violating the Unities broke this illusion; Johnson argued it didn't.
9. Emendation: A correction made to a text (especially an old or corrupted manuscript or printed text) to remove errors or corruptions introduced by scribes, printers, or time. Johnson proposed emendations cautiously.
10. First Folio: The first collected edition of Shakespeare's plays, published in 1623, seven years after his death. Crucial source text. Theobald used it as a basis.
11. Fourth Folio: A later collected edition of Shakespeare's plays (1685). Considered less reliable by later editors like Theobald. Rowe used it.
12. Genre: A category of artistic composition characterized by similarities in form, style, or subject matter (e.g., Tragedy, Comedy, History). Neo-Classicism enforced strict genre separation.
13. Iambic Pentameter: The most common meter in English poetry. A line of five iambic feet (an iamb: unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable: da-DUM). Blank verse uses this meter without rhyme.
14. "Just Representations of General Nature": Johnson's core criterion for greatness. Depicting universal human experiences, passions, and character types truthfully and recognizably. The source of Shakespeare's enduring appeal for Johnson.
15. Mingled Drama / Tragicomedy: A play that mixes elements of both tragedy and comedy within the same work. Shakespeare frequently did this; Neo-Classical rules forbade it; Johnson defended it.
16. Neo-Classicism: A movement in literature and art (late 17th-18th centuries) inspired by the ideals and forms of classical Greek and Roman antiquity. Emphasized order, reason, clarity, decorum, adherence to rules (like the Unities), and didacticism. Johnson was a major Neo-Classical figure, though his Shakespeare criticism challenged some dogmas.
17. Poetic Justice: The idea, especially prominent in Neo-Classicism, that literature should distribute rewards and punishments fittingly at the end: virtue rewarded, vice punished. Johnson strongly criticized Shakespeare for often neglecting poetic justice (e.g., Cordelia's death).
18. Prescriptive Veneration: Respect and reverence granted to something (like ancient writers) primarily because it is old and traditionally esteemed, often implying its value is prescribed by tradition. Johnson argued Shakespeare now deserved this status.
19. Prolix: (Of speech or writing) using or containing too many words; tediously lengthy. Johnson found some of Shakespeare's tragic narration prolix.
20. Quarto (Q): A size and format for printed books, created by folding a sheet of paper twice to make four leaves (eight pages). Many Shakespeare plays were published individually in Quarto format during or shortly after his lifetime. Theobald used Quartos as source texts.
21. Quibble: A play on words; a pun. Johnson fiercely criticized Shakespeare's excessive fondness for quibbles, especially in serious scenes.
22. Test of Time: Johnson's argument that the longevity of a work's popularity and esteem is the ultimate proof of its literary merit. He applied this to justify Shakespeare's status as a "classic".
23. Tragedy: A dramatic genre depicting serious and important events in which the protagonist suffers catastrophe or profound disappointment. Aims to evoke pity and fear (catharsis). Neo-Classical rules defined it strictly.
24. Tragicomedy: See Mingled Drama.
25. Unities (Time, Place, Action): Neo-Classical dramatic rules derived (sometimes rigidly) from interpretations of Aristotle's Poetics.
• Unity of Action: One central plot with minimal subplots.
• Unity of Time: The play's action should occur within 24 hours.
• Unity of Place: The play's action should occur in a single location.
• Johnson defended Shakespeare's violation of Time/Place, arguing he maintained Action.
26. Universality: The quality of appealing to or being understood by all people, across different cultures and time periods, because it deals with fundamental aspects of the human condition. Johnson saw this as Shakespeare's greatest strength ("Poet of Nature").
27. Variorum Edition: An edition of an author's works (or a single work) that includes extensive notes and commentary compiling the observations of previous editors and critics, often also listing variant readings from different source texts. Johnson's Shakespeare edition was a pioneering variorum.
28. Verbiage: Speech or writing that uses too many words or excessively technical expressions; verbosity. Johnson criticized some Shakespearean speeches as verbiage.
29. Verisimilitude: The appearance of being true or real. In literature/drama, it refers to the illusion of reality created. Johnson criticized Shakespeare for lacking verisimilitude regarding historical time/place accuracy (anachronisms).
30. "Willing Suspension of Disbelief": A phrase coined later by Samuel Taylor Coleridge to describe the audience's conscious, temporary acceptance of fictional or improbable elements in a work of art for the sake of enjoyment. Johnson articulated the core concept in his defense of the Unities violation.